Unusual Attitudes - Stalls - Spins

Unusual attitudes in your airplane are perhaps self-explanatory, an extreme departure from straight and level flight - not all that serious since the airplane is not stalled. An unusual attitude can lead to a stall and to a spin. The FARs (Federal Air Regulations) require knowledge and proficiency in unusual attitudes and stalls.
A spin is a maneuver , intentionally or unintentionally performed, beginning with the stall of the airplane at level flight (although the stall and entry can occur in unusual positions) followed by rotation or gyrations from its horizontal, vertical, and lateral axises. But let's not get too technical - the important thing is to recognize what it is and how to recover to straight and level flight. Why? Because a stall or spin can occur at low altitude or in the traffic pattern, without sufficient altitude to recover.
In our discussion, let's separate the stall from the spin. After all, the stall is necessary to a good landing - we encounter stalls every time we fly. When the airplane stalls, it quits flying, and unless you are already touching the runway, it takes maybe several hundred feet to recover.
The spin is a different "kettle of fish". Dangerous? Yes and no. It means you've lost total control of the airplane. If you don't initiate immediate recovery, it's dangerous. If the spin is allowed past three turns or stays inverted, the spin (flat spin) may become unpredictable or unrecoverable. Each airplane is different. Large airplanes are not meant to be spinned, and the Manufacturer of the airplane must state in the Airplane Flight Manual whether spins are prohibited. If prohibited, don't spin the airplane. If you get into a spin inadvertently, the Manufacturer will advise as follows: Move the throttle to IDLE, the ailerons to Neutral, then full opposite RUDDER, followed by control stick or control wheel FORWARD. When the rotation stops, neutralize both rudder and stick.
The procedure for recovery from a spin, then, is similar in most Airplane Handbooks of the typical GA small airplane:
1. Power off.
2. Opposite rudder.
3. Contol stick forward (to break the stall.
4. Ailerons neutral.
5. Check attitude and upset of instruments.

Without getting into aerodynamics, we have stopped the rotation of the spin, unstalled the airplane, and restored level flight. Very simple, yes? But in rotating the airplane, we are looking at the background moving in the opposite direction, at an angle. So we must keep in mind the direction of the spin (the heavy foot will indicate the direction to stop the turn of rotation). If the rotation is not stopped, the spin may become aggravated and more altitude will be lost since the airplane is still stalled.
The FARs do not require spin demonstration or proficiency by private or commercial pilots. Instructor pilots, for all ratings, are required to be proficient in spins.
Should you be demonstrated spins? In my opinion spins should be discussed and demonstrated by Instructor pilots for the new pilot, for many obvious reasons. The demonstration should actually begin with unusual attitudes, leading to stalls and spins, followed by recovery procedures, and ending with Do's and Don'ts.
The pilot, at any time, may encounter an upset or unusual attitude leading to a stall/spin, requiring an immediate recovery response, particularly on instrument flight. Jet vortices or violent air turbulence can cause an upset, totally unexpected, requiring immediate recovery.
Should you practice spins? Again, Yes or No. If spins are permitted in the airplane and you feel comfortable knowing that airplane and what it can do (that is, steep climbing or dscending turns, recovery of stalls, perhaps a split "S", etc.) , I would say yes. If not, wait until you have more time in the airplane.
If you do practice spins, climb to 5,000 feet or more, outside of the city and away from a known traffic area, so that you have sufficient altitude and space to recover. Make sure that your airplane is properly balanced, make recovery movements precise and positive (no hesitation). The altitude loss of a typical GA airplane for a one-turn spin, including recovery, is about 1,200 feet - but don't count on it.
I could cite you a dozen set of statistics regarding aircraft accidents involving spins. The bulk of these accidents usually do not involve the spin maneuver itself. The numbers will not help you - the recommendations will. There is no need to be apprehensive about spins. If you know your airplane well, have perhaps several hundred flying hours, follow the flight rules, and know the recovery procedures without hesitation, I would say practice your spins. I think it is far better to know how to stay out of trouble than to blindly look at trouble for the first time. RS.

Approaches and Landings

Approaches first - What is a good approach to land? A good approach is a prerequisite to a good landing. We can approach the runway either by a traffic pattern or straight in (if cleared). We'll begin with what the FAA thinks a good pattern should be. (My comments in parenthesis) chapter 4 under Air Traffic Control in the FAR handbook states as follows:

1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the mid-point of the runway at pattern altitude - 1,000' above ground level (AGL) is the recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise (each airport or field has a stated pattern altitude above the station's elevation above sea level - if the station is located at an elevation of 800', and if the pattern altitude is to be 1,000' above the station, then the pattern altitude would be 1,800'. (A left hand pattern is recommended unless directed otherwise).
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. (Turn left on base leg, either hold altitude or descend to turn from base leg to final - FAA left this step out, which is important).
4. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway.
5. Either land or proceed straight ahead until beyond the departure end of the runway.
6. If remaining in the traffic pattern (TP), commence a turn to crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway within 300 ft of pattern altitude.
7. If departing the TP, continue straight out or exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left or the right depending on the TP) beyond the departure end of the runway after reaching TP altitude (or, as directed by the Tower or Air Traffic Control for climbout.
8. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will penetrate the final approach of a parallel runway.
9. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the departure path of the parallel runway.

In WWII, flying P-38's, a pattern to the field was somewhat abbreviated. We would come across the field downwind at low altitude (say 50 ft) to midfield, execute a steep climbing right turn (never left) to a pattern altitude established by experience, followed by a relatively steep descending turn to the runway. There was a line painted across the runway. If we landed beyond the line we were fined $1.00. The distance down the runway beyond the line was necessary to keep from overshooting. I missed now and then in the beginning. But we can't do that here and now - we fly square patterns and use our best judgment.

Keep in mind that there are other authorized approaches such as Contact, VFR,VOR, IFR , etc., many associated with or from a holding pattern or instrument approach procedure.

Most airports will have a Segmented Circle, usually in the middle of the airport, showing the direction of the TP, and a wind cone to indicate the direction of the wind.

Now the landing: The approach is half the battle - but you really have three choices:
1. You can set up an approach speed and maintain it all the way down to the flare point (probably above the end of the runway at perhaps 50 ft, assuming your shooting for the first 1,000 ft of runway).
2. Descend at a constant rate, say 500 ft/min, and adjust the descent angle so that you don't undershoot or overshoot your touchdown point.
3. Set up an airspeed with throttle, bleeding of airspeed as you descend with pitch control (using your stabilizer control) to the flare point (say the end of the runway at 50 ft). In any case leave a little throttle on in case you have to go around or if it's gusty or you have a crosswind. The flare will be your short-term judgment, gently bleeding off airspeed to the stall. The stall has to coincide with runway contact, otherwise you will "drop the airplane in" or experience a "hard landing", followed by a bounce. Remember that if you stall the airplane, say 2 ft above the runway, your contact force will be the 2 ft x the weight of your airplane (the heavier the airplane the greater the force), plus the fact that you may have a little trouble with the second contact, after the bounce, keeping the airplane on a straight course. A crosswind or gusts would aggravate your situation.

I prefer setting up a 500 ft/min descent, then bleeding off airspeed with the stabilizer to the flare point, depending on my judgment between undershooting and overshooting the runway. Short field landings should be made with power on to the end of the runway, then"chopping the throttle" on touchdown. Forget the go-around, unless you feel you can't accomplish the stop on rollout.

After all is said and done, remember that the airplane has to touch down on the runway stalled, at the same attitude that it sets at rest. Put this in your memory for the final approach and as you flare.

RS.

Altimeter Settings

Altimeter settings is a subject usually not discussed in any great detail and one has to put altimeter errors and atmospheric temperature and pressure standards together to get the true picture of why we have to keep resetting the altimeter as we fly.
Let's look at it this way: The standard temperature at sea level (s.l.) is 59 degrees Farenheit (F.) and the temperature decreases with altitude at a gradient of 3.6 degrees/1000 feet (ft).
So as we gain altitude we have to apply a temperature correction.
The atmospheric pressure also decreases with altitude (roughly 1 inch Hg/1,000 ft) and is subject to high or low pressure areas that travel across our continents.
Since the accuracy of airplane altimeters is subject to changes in temperature and pressure, static pressure systems and instrument errors, a set of procedures must be used to maintain conformity of altitude for all airplanes in flight.
Above 18,000 ft. - A standard altimeter setting of 29.92 in. of Hg is used by all.
Below 18,000 ft. - When the barometric pressure is 31 in. Hg or less, the altimeter shall be set in accordance with a station along the route of flight, within 100 nautical miles of the aircraft.
VFR Flight - The pilot must set his altimeter at departure (the station) and en route (stations).
IFR Flight - FAA traffic Controllers will furnish the pilot with a current setting at least once while the aircraft is in the Controller's area of jurisdiction.
No Radio Flight - Set the altimeter at the departure airport.

Altimeter instrument Error - Any scale error should be detected by the pilot when he climbs into the cockpit: Then,
1. Set the current reported altimeter setting (airport).
2. The altimeter should now indicate the field elevation in altitude.
3. If not, note the variation from the known elevation. If the variation is plus or minus 75
feet, the accuracy of the altimeter is questionable.

In flight, obtain frequent current altimeter settings along your route because the weather keeps changing (Temp. and Press.) as you fly.
Flying from a high pressure area to a low pressure area - your airplane will be lower to the surface than your altimeter indicates.
Flying from a low pressure area to a high pressure area - your airplane will be higher above the surface than your altimeter indicates.

In any case, reset your altimeter to the setting given by the Tower before you land. Usually the ATIS has the current setting. What is ATIS? ATIS is an automatic terminal information service available to pilots on arrival at their destination, giving the pilot pertinent advisories such as altimeter setting, runway in use, current weather, etc.

We'll take up ATIS later as a subject for discussion. RS.